Texts

Literature Review

Memory


Introduction


My research and practice is concerned with the domain of memory and how I can realise an artwork that will diminish the barriers and divisions within my society in Northern Ireland, utilising contemporary practice and critical theory. A deeper understanding of the historical and contemporary critical theory and the concept of memory is necessary before proceeding with further research on whether memory can be utilised to make a shift in the current impasse within the divided society of Northern Ireland.

I have chosen; Memory: a Critical Idiom by Anne Whitehead 2009, as a grounding text in the main area of research, this has been an important text in my gaining an understanding of the critical theory regarding memory. Whiteheads book brings the Western historical and contemporary thinkers in the area of memory and a perspective of how critical theory on memory has changed and developed through the ages to the reader.


Finding a critical language that works across the multiple disciplines and discourse in memory is problematic, as each subject area has it's own particular language with variations in meaning of common terms. In this text I refer to Collective memory and to Cultural memory, for me they both mean the same thing, the memories of a group.

Critical Theory on Collective (Cultural) Memory


The initial research then is, what is 'Collective memory' ? Collective memory is seen as a structure by which we shape our society and culture, Huyssen states that, "Traditions, ..., always based on selections and exclusions, gave shape to cultural and social life"( 2003 p.1). In a local context this is true and has contributed to maintaining barriers and validating the mind set that the 'other' is something to fear. In defining culture we should take into account hegemony, which is the subjugation, control, or dominating influence by one person or group over others. If hegemony is a normal state of society and this is the case according to Marx and Engels 'The ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch the ruling ideas', (1970, p.64).


Examples of this division can be seen in many public spaces throughout Northern Ireland, even on the humble street sign seen on every street and road. In an area which is perceived as a Nationalist area, the street names will be in Irish, in an area which is perceived as Loyalist, the street signs are in Ulster Scots. At this basic but highly visual level the divisions within our society are evident, we are reminded on a daily basis that our society is perceived to consist of two cultures each deeply rooted in it's own Cultural or Collective memory, which are subject to contested interpretations.

First there was Plato


Anne Whitehead (2009 p.123) suggests that Maurice Halbwachs' theory on 'Collective memory' came to prominence during the early twentieth century due to two books written by Halbwachs¹. Whitehead further suggests that Halbwachs “argued that memory was a specifically social phenomenon” (2009 p.123). However, prior to this 'Scholarly' interest in Halbwach, Plato compared memory as to that of writing on a wax tablet, the tablet being stored for later recall. The Romantic period “associated memory with the idea of individual experience” And Bergson, a former lecturer of Halbwachs thought that 'memory was retained complete and entire,...available for future recollection.' (2009 p124).

Halbwachs’ writings on memory would seem to differ from those held by previous thinkers, in that he sees memory as 'collective' and that all individuals are part of a collective or group in some form, for example; social class.. the family, etc.,

Halbwachs insistence that 'individual memory constitutes merely a viewpoint on the collective memory', (Halbwach 1980, cited in Whitehead 2009, p.), and that collective memory only lasts as long as, the group exists, then the collective memory becomes history, is problematic and has been challenged by several contemporary thinkers. Whitehead states Neo Gedi and Yigal Elam see Halbwachs theory as going beyond Durkheimian theory and 'abandoning the fine distinction...between individual and collective representations' (Gedi, Elam,1996, cited Whitehead,2009, p.129). And that Paul Ricoeur thinks Halbwach has crossed a line, and separates 'the thesis “no one ever remembers alone” from the thesis “we are not an authentic subject of the attribution of memories”' (Ricoeur, 2004 cited Whitehead, 2009 p.129).

Memory Model

The image below is my interpretation of how individual and collective memory relate to each other. This is based on the basic model of memory, Encoding, Retention and Retrieval. We now know that memory is not as simplistic as the basic model, but in an effort to illustrate my theory I have kept to the basic model.

If we say that collective memory is the sum of its parts, that is, the individual memory of several individuals that have gone through the basic memory process; Encoding Retention Retrieval, there must be a relational process between the two.

The retrieved memory must then be passed by some activity to the collective memory where it enters the collective memory through Encoding, Retention, Retrieval. This is then fed back into individual memory as an altered form containing several individual memories, now collective memory.

I would further suggest that this repeats as new members join the group or retrieve memories of previous members. Consider a family group, a member dies yet their memory is passed back into the collective memory by individual members and the process begins again. In short memory, either individual or collective is in a constant state of flux.

 

Illustration 1: Basic memory structure: encoding, retention, retrieval

 

However, we can see some aspects of this thinking as far back as the ancient Greeks and the use of mnemonics. Contrary to the idea that mnemonics is simply a way to recall verbatim, the Greek bard drew on and reconstructed memory suitable for the time in which the recall took place.. (Whitehead 2009, p.5)

Anne Whitehead interprets this as,

'bringing the story into contact with the current social conditions, preserving what was necessary for the present and transforming or discarding that which was no longer relevant.' (Whitehead 2009 p5)

She further suggests that memory 'is not simply handed down in a timeless fashion from generation to generation, but bears the impress or stamp of its own time and culture.' (2009 p4).

I suggest that this theory is problematic in Northern Ireland, as it appears that memory has been 'simply handed down', we appear to be stuck with the same old stories, traditions and beliefs that resurface at times of strife. Our problem with memory is, we have not dealt with our collective past in sufficient manner, the trauma continues and will continue until we take action to redress the situation. We also have the additional problem of what Hirsch terms postmemory, transferring the traumatic events of previous generations on to the next and the next Ad infinitum . Hirschs' definition of postmemory is:

Postmemory characterises the experience of those who grow up dominated by narratives that preceded their birth, whose own belated stories are displaced by the stories of the previous generation, shaped by traumatic events that they can neither understand nor re-create.'. (Bal et all 1999 p.8)

Conclusion

The notion of how memory works is essential to the understanding of it is fitness for purpose. Can memory 'mediate and modify' (Bal et all 1999, Intro) what is essentially a collective traumatic experience with contested interpretations? Within this Collective memory are the memories of the individual, often not heard because the clamor of Collective memory drowns them out, according to Hirsch (Bal et all 1999), "personal memory is crowded out by cultural memory." Perhaps this is true, and if so can it be reversed, and how? If Collective memory is made up of the memories of individuals then we need to use individual memory in order to evoke a change in the Collective memory. New methodologies are required to achieve this. The concept of memory is complex, and in order to understand its usefulness I feel it is necessary to isolate individual methodologies of memory retrieval, for example storytelling which is a tried and tested method.

In closing I refer to the quote below which is the concept of the 'self' in relation to the Enlightenment. The notion of the 'self' may seem outdated, however I feel that this can be applied as a framework within which to work with contested memories. The principles applied should be seen as a starting point for further research and practice.

This 1 awareness of conflict of values forced 2 the individual to make his own decisions, to 3 question the conduct of those who presided over the established order, and 4 to seek a way of reconciliation which would at once enable him to make his peace with other men and to be true to himself. ( Colin Morris The discovery of the individual, 1050-1200)

Bibliography

Cited:
Bal, M., et all,. 1999. Acts of memory : cultural recall in the present. Hanover, NH : Dartmouth College; University Press of New England.
Huyssen, A., 2003 . Present pasts : urban palimpsests and the politics of memory. Stanford University Press.
Marx, K, Angles F, 1970, The German Ideology, edited by Arthur C, J. New York: International Publishers
Morris, C., 1987, The Discovery of the Individual 1050-1200, The Medieval Academy Reprints for Teaching University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division

Referenced

Bal, M, Marx-MacDonald, S, 2002. Travelling concepts in the humanities: a rough guide. University of Toronto Press

Bennett, J., 2005. Empathic Vision affect trauma and contemporary art. Stanford University Press

Saltzman, L., 2006, Making Memory Matter strategies of remembrance in contemporary art, The university of Chicago Press.

1The Social Frameworks of Memory 1925; translated as On Collective Memory, 1992 and The Collective Memory published posthumously in 1950